Among Mongolian and Tibetan high-ranking Buddhist monks, the Khutukhtu is second only to that of the Dalai and the Panchen. There have, however, been various interpretations of the word khutukhtu, its linguistic origin, and connotations. In this essay, therefore, I expound on the preliminary textual research I have made into questions regarding the origin of the word "khutukhtu," its course of evolution, and specific meaning when "Khutukhtu" became the post and rank title for certain Mongolian and Tibetan high-ranking Buddhist monks.

On the Origin and Evolution of the word "Khutukhtu"

In general, academic circles are agreed that "khutukhtu" is a Mongolian word, although there are also those who believe it to be Tibetan, and others that it is of the Manchu language. For example, the definition in Volume I of the "Weizang Tongzhi" (A General History of U-Tsang) is:"Fotu, Futu and Fotou are all inexact transliterations of the Tibetan word 'khutukhtu' (ho-thog-thu)". The "Tibetan-Chinese Dictionary," compiled by the Teaching and Research Section on the Tibetan Written Language, of the Northwest institute for Ethnic Minorities, maintains that "khutukhtu" is a word from the Manchu language. Prior to the i3th century, there occurred a common phenomenon among the various ethnic minorities living on the grasslands ofNothern China of borrowing words from one another's languages. When analysing the word's etymology, the root of the word "khutukhtu,"is "khutu," and it first changes to "khutukh," and finally to "khutukhtu." In ancient Turkic there is a word, "khutu/'that means"good fortune" or"happiness". The"kutadghu," in "Kutadghu Bilig," the original title of the classic Uygur epic poem, "Happiness and Wisdom,"written in the llth century, came from "khutukh"; which was translated into the Chinese word "fu" (good fortune, or happiness). The note in Chinese for the word "khutukhei tai" in Volume III of the Mongolian annals, "The Mongolian Secret History," written in 1240, was"fuyou" ("having good fortune"or "possessing happiness"). The root of the word"khutukhei" is "khutukh," and either "tai" or "tu" in Mongolian means "have" or "possess". It is therefore clear that both "khutu"and "khutukh" were commonly used in ancient Turkic, Uygur, and Mongolian, and shared the meaning, "good fortune" or "happiness", The word, "khutukhtu", in ancient Mongolian originally meant"having good fortune" or "possessing happiness," and later, after the spread of Buddhism to Mongolian areas, it became the title of a post and rank for Mongolian and Tibetan high-ranking Buddhist monks. The change in function of this word has since been a source of interest to later generations. When consulting dictionaries on cultural, historical, and Buddhist terms, the word, "khutukhtu," is easily found.

Its definitions vary, however, and can be narrowed down to three main interpretations:"saint", "longevity" and "incarnation"as the connotations expressed by the word "khutukhtu" differed according to various socio-historical periods, and different cultural environments.

As already established, the original meaning of the word-root "khutukh" is "good fortune" or "happiness". In the Mongolian language, certain words and expressions often combine "khutukh" and another main word, as in"Nasunkhutukh," which is made up of'nas" (lifespan) and "khutukh." "Nasunkhutukh"can therefore be literally translated as meaning "happy longevity," with the meaning "good wishes for a long life." The expression, "khutukh" is therefore not a Buddhist term, but a Mongolian word in common use to express good wishes. As "khutukh" and "nas" combine to create another word meaning "longevity," the word "khutukh" was translated in dictionaries compiled by the lexicographers of modern times, such as "The Three-in-One Mongolian-Chinese-Manchu Dictionary"2 and the "Mongolian-Chinese Dictionary"3 as meaning "(a long) life-pan." It might be that these were the main sources of historical data used as a basis by contemporary dictionaries for interpreting the post and rank title of Mongolian and Tibetan high-ranking Buddhist monks, "Khutukhtu" as "longevity" or "a long life and eternal youth."

With the spread of Buddhism to Mongolian areas, the word, "khutukhtu," began to form an indissoluble association with Buddhism. As is widely known, in the middle of the i3th century, the sa-skya-pa, a Tibetan Buddhist sect, established relations with the Yuan Dynasty and won the Yuan rulers' trust and faith. In the Mongolian language, the Tibetan word "vphags-pa/'the respectful form of address for the fifth leader of the Sa-skya Sect, was translated as "khutukhtu," and the "vphags-pa" was called "Khutukhtu vphags-pa" or "vphags-pa Khutukhtu". Hence the word "khutukhtu" became a Buddhist term with a new connotation, and could be translated into the Tibetan word "vphags-pa" or the Chinese word"shengzhe" (saint).

"Tibetan Buddhists often precede or follow the names of ancient Buddhist masters, Buddhas, or dharmas and sangas, with this word to signify their nobility and venerability."4 Mongolian Buddhists also used the word in this way The earliest record of a Buddhist monk's name being preceded by "khutukhtu" is an inscription on the overhead pagoda projection spanning the road at the Juyongguan Pass, which was inscribed "vphags-pa" in the Mongolian script in 1345. It recorded:

"When the sacred and pure Buddhist pagoda was completed, we were honoured to invite the Emperor"s tutor, Khutukhtu Arnandha Sri Badhara Lama, to, carry out the blessing and consecrating rites ..."5 The term "vphags-pa" preceding the title of each Buddhist sutra in the Ganjur in Tibetan was translated as "Khutukhtu" in the Mongolian Ganjur, while in the Chinese "Contents of Ganjur" it was translated as "sheng" (holy, sacred). In addition, in Tibetan language Buddhist scriptures, ancient India was called the "vphags-pa yul," meaning "the sacred place", and it was translated into Mongolian Buddhist scriptures as "khutukhtan nu orin" which meant "the land of khutukhtu." In all cases, the word"khutukhtu" preceding a person's name, or a place name, or the title of a Buddhist sutra, means "sacred" or "holy" Many scholars have, therefore, interpreted the word "khutukhtu"as meaning"saint," which, although undoubtedly close to its meaning, still does not extend to its original meaning of a post and rank within Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhism.

The original meaning of "Khutukhtu99 as a Post and Rank During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, the title "living Buddha"was the only one that related to the belief in reincarnation inherent in Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhism. Although the word "khutukhtu" existed, it was solely used to precede names of certain persons, places, and Buddhist sutras, to signify due reverence.

When, then, did the word "khutukhtu" begin to be used as a post and rank title for living Buddhas and high-ranking monks? According to accounts of the Yellow Sect's (Ge-lug-pa's or Dgec-lugs-pa's) expansion into Mongolian areas, contained in Mongolian language history books, such as "The Biography ofAltan Khan, "and "The Origin and Development of Mongolia," it was in the year of the Red Mouse (1576) during the latter part of the id century, that the head of the Turned Mongols, Altan Khan, sent a mission to Tibet inviting Sonam Gyatso to give lectures and propagate the Yellow Sect in Mongolian areas. On the fifteenth day of May (according to the traditional Chinese calendar) in the sixth year ofMing emperor Shenzong's reign (1578) Sonam Gyatso met Altan Khan in Chapuqiyal (Yanghua) Temple in Qinghai, and following the old conventions, they presented each other with honorific titles.
　
"Following the old practice of exchanging honorific titles between the Buddhist Masters and their benefactors, all of the high-ranking and lower-ranking 'noyan's ('officials' in Mongolian) headed by the most excellent Prince Dharma, as well as all of the benefactors, headed by the Khan, honoured the All-knowing, His Holiness the Dalai Lama, and presented him with the epithets of Sacred Vajradhara (Vajra-holder) Sayincokhtu Buyankuu Dalai, and the gold seal.

The title Manjusri Khutukh was presented to the reincarnated living Buddha Donkor Lama, and the title Maitreya Khutukhtu was presented to the reincarnated living Buddha Sonam Grags-pa Lama."6 This marked the start of the practice of presenting the title "Khutukhtu" to reincarnated living Buddhas.

According to the above-cited historical record, while presenting Sonam Gyatso with the honorific title 'All-knowing Vajra-holder, His Holiness the Dalai Lama,"Altan Khan also presented the reincarnated living Buddha, Donkor Lama, with the title Manjusri Khutukhtu, and presented the reincarnated living Buddha Sonam Grags-pa Lama with the title Maitreya Khutukhtu. The titles "Dalai Lama" and "Khutukhtu" were, therefore, conferred by the head of the Turned Mongols Altan Khan in May of 1^78, which was earlier than the granting of the honorific titles of "Panchen Bogdo" and "Panchen Erdeni" When the term "khutukhtu" became a granted title to Mongolian and Tibetan living Buddhas and high-ranking monks, new connotations, beyond those of "having good fortune/'and "possessing happiness," and "saint," attached to this word. In "The Biography of Altan Khan" the Dalai Lama, the Manjusri Khutukhtu, and the Maitreya Khutukhtu were jointly called "the Three Khutukhtus headed by the Dalai Lama". Although no record has been found of Altan Khan awarding Sonam Gyatso the title of Khutukhtu, the honorific title 'All-knowing Vajra-holder, His Holiness the Dalai Lama" granted by Altan Khan to Sonam Gyatso nevertheless makes clear that the Dalai Lama had attained the highest accomplishments in his practice of
exoteric and esoteric Buddhism, and become a qualified "Ocean Guru" (the greatest Buddhist Master). This was the highest honorific title for a Buddhist monk in the Mongolian and Tibetan areas. Mongolian Buddhist circles regarded the highest leader of the Yellow Sect as "the incarnatdon of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva", and called him "Khutukhtu Dalai Lama"or "Bodhisattva Khutukhtu Vajra-holder Dalai Lama"7, which meant that Sonam Gyatso had achieved the level ofKhutukh, or Bodhisattva. To be precise, he was the incarnation of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, who had been reincarnated into an ordinary human being for the purpose of doing good works, with compassion, in the secular world, and extricating all living creatures from misery by practicing Buddhist Dharmas. It is noteworthy that Altan Khan preceded the granted title "Khutukhtu" with the terms "Manjusri"or "Maitreya" ; when he first presented the two Khutukhtus with their respective honorific titles. The Sanskrit word "Manjusri" and its Mongolian transliteration, mean Bodhisattva of Wisdom, and Maitreya in Sanskrit and Mongolian transliteration is the name of the Future Buddha (the Mongolian people therefore also call Maitreya "Maitreya Buddha"). This meant that the reincarnated Donkor Lama had attained the level of Khutukh of Manjusri Bodhisattva (Bodhisattva of Wisdom) and was the incarnation of the Manjusri Bodhisattva; while the reincarnated Sonam Grags-pa Lama had attained the level of Khutukh of the Maitreya Bodhisattva (future Buddha) and was the incarnation of the Maitreya Bodhisattva. Apart from the Khutukhtu Dalai Lama, another leader of the Yellow Sect was the Panchen Khutukhtu, "The Panchen Living Buddha was regarded as the reincarnation of the Buddha of Boundless Light"The Kyirong Khutukhtu, who later became a famous Living Buddha of high status in the Tibetan region, was also mentioned in "The Biography of Altan Khan" and was called"the Kyirong Khutukhtu Incarnation of the Vajra Pani." The Sanskrit word "Vajrapani" and its Mongolian transliteration means "the Bodhisattva with Vajra Hands." The religious status of a Khutukhtu as the incarnation of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva was, of course, higher than that of an ordinary living Buddha.

Viewed from this angle, the meaning here of "khutukh" in Buddhist doctrine was actually"the (preordained) result of Karma". The word "khutukh" frequently appears in "The Biography ofAltan Khan", for example: "Sutras by which one can rapidly achieve the khutukh to become Buddha of Satisfaction," "However, it is possible to find a shortcut to achieving the Khutukh to becoming a Buddha." Mr. Jurungga, O^^RIO, in his translation of "The Biography of Altan Khan" into Chinese, translated "khutukh" as "guo" (the result through Karma), for example: "Sutras by which one can quickly achieve the 'guo' (M)to become the Buddha of Satisfaction," "However, it is possible to find a shortcut to achieving the 'guo' of becoming a Buddha." In the "Ye-shes Pan-jo's Buddhist History" written in Mongolian9, "the result through Karma of becoming an Arhat" and the "Yuliu Result by Karma" were both translated into Mongolian as meaning"the Arhat Khutukh" and "the Yuliu Khutukh." In "The Origin and Development of Mongolia" the sentence "(he) achieved the Khutukh of becoming Buddha" occurs twice, and is both times translated into Chinese as"Huo Fo Dao" ("achieved the accomplishments to become a Buddha). In the Chinese translation of the book, carried out during the years of Emperor Gaozong's reign in the Qing Dynasty, and in "The New Translation of 'The Origin and Development of Mongolia' with Collation Notes," translated by Dorunatib GMflNl^^), and in"The History of Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhism," it is pointed out that: "A lama with the greatest achievements and the most satisfactory Buddhist Dharma was called Khutukhtu."10 I think this was most coincident with the original meaning of the granted title of Khutukhtu, and exactly expressed the real intention ofAltan Khan, when he first conferred the honorific title of Khutukhtu on the Donkor Lama and Sonata Grags-pa Lama.

It should not be forgotten that there are polysemants in any ethnic group's spoken and written languages. For example, the definitions of the Chinese word "dao" OH) in the "Ci Hai" (Ocean of words) dictionary amount to 15 entries. Bearing this in mind, how many different meanings are expressed by the Mongolian word"khutukhtu" in different historical periods, and different cultural climates, from ancient times to the present? The greatest interest generated by this word, however, is its specified meaning "achieving the accomplishments to become a Bodhisattva" or "achieving the accomplishments to become a Buddha".

Characteristics of Titles Granted to Buddhist High-ranking Monks during the Qing Dynasty There were various ranks and honorific titles issued to Buddhist high-ranking monks in the Mongolian and Tibetan regions during the Qing Dynasty.

Apart from that of Dalai Lama and Panchen, there were, in descending order of precedence, Khutukhtu, Nomihan, Khenpo, Droiji, State Tutor, Dhyana Master, and so on, which could be broadly classified into two kinds: post ranks, and honorific titles. According to the "Fixed Institutions of the Post Ranks and Honorific Titles such as Khutukhtu" in the "Impenal Regulations Enforced by the Council of Ethnic Minority Affairs:" 'All Khutukhtu, Nomihan, Pandita, Khenpo, and Droiji are post ranks, and State Tutor and Dhyana Master are honorific granted titles. While it is allowed that a Khutukhtu may be awarded the title of State Tutor, or Dhyana Master concurrently, none of the Khutukhtus is allowed to occupy any other rank, such as Nomihan, Pandita, Khenpo, or Droiji concurrently; and a State Tutor cannot concurrently be a Dhyana Master."

Taken literally, there was no rank of Prince of Dharma (chos-rgyal, in Tibetan). In Mongolian, however, Nomihan meant "Prince of Dharma" and "Erdeni Nomihan" meant "the Prince of Dharma of Great Treasure." During the Qing Dynasty "Nomihan" was the most frequently granted post rank. According to records in the "Imperial Institutions, Decrees, and Regulations of the Great Qing Dynasty," in the fifty-eighth year of Emperor Shengzu's reign(1719): "The Nomihan of propagating the Yellow Sect was conferred on the Draya Khutukhtu by the Imperial Court, and the Nomihan of Erdeni for propagating the Yellow Sect was conferred on the Chamdo Khutukhtu" In the twenty-fourth year of Emperor Gaozong's reign(1759):

'According to the Emperor's instruction, the Demo Khutukhtu was granted the title, Great Virtue Nomihan Commanding the Yellow Sect;" in the thirty-fifth year of Emperor Gaozong's reign:

"With the Emperor's permission, the Ra-dreng Rwa-sgreng Khutukhtu was granted the title Archimen Nomihan following the convention of the preceding generation's Khutukhtu."

In addition, in the fifty-fourth year of Emperor Gaozong's reign: "The Kyirong Khutukhtu... was granted the honorific title ofBiligtu Nomihan."Here, the rank of Nomihan was not only conferred on certain Khutukhtus, but also called a "title,"which was an obvious discrepancy in the stipulations of the "Regulations Enforced by the Council for Ethnic Minority Affairs." During the Qing Dynasty there was another granted title called "Samadhi Pakshi." In the fifty-first year of the Emperor Gaozong's reign, the Emperor instructed that:

"The Nomihan Ngawang Chule Demo conducts himself prudently, and studies the sutras diligently, and has, since the Tibetan Dgav-ldan Abbot Khutu's enthronement, assisted the Dalai Lama in managing his daily affairs, and has hence enjoyed a good reputation for propagating the Yellow Sect; we therefore appoint him to the post of Drasa for managing the Dalai Lama's seal-affixing affairs, and confer on him the title, Samadhi Pakshi of Propagating Buddhism." "The Sanskrit word "samadhi" means "calm meditation" and "Pakshi" is a Mongolian word meaning "master." "Samadhi Pakshi" was therefore interpreted as meaning "Meditation Master" or "Ding Shi") in Chinese. The granted title, "Samadhi Pakshi" has not been found in any other historical records, although in the Ming and in Qing Dynasties there did exist the Chinese granted title, "Chan Shi"), which also means "master of calm meditation."

The system of reincarnate living Buddhas in Tibetan Buddhism was instituted by the Karma-ka-gyu-pa (Karma-bkav-brgyud), a sub-sect of the Ka-gyu-pa Sect. The Yellow Sect began officially to adopt the system of reincarnate living Buddhas in the middle of the 16th century, when Sonam Gyatso, the third Dalai Lama, was on the throne. Later, however: "As the Yellow Sect prohibits its monks from marrying and having children, and has always depended on reincarnate living Buddhas to resolve the problem of succession of monastic group leaders, the system finally became quite rampant. Owing to the vast distribution and universal practice of the system on the one hand, and since there are diversities of high-ranking and lower-ranking living Buddhas on the other, it is difficult to make clear the exact total of Yellow Sect Living Buddhas, and so far we have not carried out such statistical work."

In order to counter the phenomenon whereby the system of reincarnate living Buddhas was getting out of control, the "Imperial Institutions, Decrees, and Regulations of the Great Qing Dynasty" stipulated that:

"When any of the Khutukhtu in various places, or any of the existing Great Lamas passes away, a search for, and identification of his reincarnation ("hubilehan") is allowed, but it is not allowed to seek and identify the hubilehan from among ordinary lamas that have died who were abbots of small monasteries, not well-known, and who were never previously reincarnated."13 The authority to grant the post and rank of Khutukhtu, which afforded a high position among living Buddhas, was held by the Imperial Court, or was in the hands of the Dalai and the Panchen; and all Khutukhtus' names were recorded in archives kept by the Council for Ethnic Minority Affairs.

'Apart from the Dalai and the Panchen, there were also the Demo Khutukhtu-eighteen people in total, and twelve Shabloons, who could all be reincarnated, that registered with the Council for Ethnic Minority Affairs.

When the Qing imperial court granted the post and rank title of Khutukhtu, its main criteria was the monk's contributions towards propagating Buddhist Dharma and his natural gifts. The question as to which Buddha's or Bodhisattva's reincarnation he was not stressed. Thus, "Khutukhtu" gradually became the granted post rank and honorific title of a Living Buddha, and also a symbol of religious and secular privilege. In Tibet these high-ranking Khutukhtus were qualified to take up the post of regent. During the Qing Dynasty the sum total of original Khutukhtus never decreased, owing to their reincarnation from generation to generation, while new Khutukhtus were continuously granted, so, the sum total of old and new continued to increase.

"The total of Mongolian and Tibetan Khutukhtus amounted to one hundred and fifty-eight people. The monastery where a Khutukhtu resides always receives excellent treatment from the imperial court."15 Among the multitude of Mongolian and Tibetan Khutukhtus, those with the highest position were the Dalai, the Panchen, and the Outer Mongolian Jebtsun Dampa. Next were the resident Khutukhtus in Beijing, and third were those residing at their places in the pastoral areas.

The terms "hubilehan" in Mongolian, "Drul-gu" (sprul-sku) in Tibetan, "huashen" (incarnation) and "huofo" (living Buddha) in Chinese, relate closely to the post and rank title of Khutukhtu, but there are differences. Owing to linguistic differences, these terms and that of "khutukhtu" are often confused. In, for example, the "Dictionary of Religious Terms" comipiled by RenJiyu (chief editor) "khutukhtu" is taken to be the Mongolian transliteration of the Tibetan word "Drul-gu," which means "incarnation." The Tibetan word "Drul-gu" means" incarnation," while the Mongolian word "hubilehan" can be literally translated as "incarnated (body)," which is equivalent to the meaning "huashen" in Chinese. In short, the terms "hubilehan" in Mongolian, "Drul-gu" in Tibetan and "huashen" in Chinese all mean, in contemporary English, "soul boy reincarnating his predecessor," and thus all express the same concept. When a Living Buddha passes away he is reincarnated into a hubilehan, and only after a hubilehan has been sought, found, and the Living Buddha he has reincarnated identified, (since the fifty-fourth year of Emperor Gaozong's reign, a hubilehan's identification has been decided by drawing lots from a golden urn), can he be called a hubilehan.

He is not called a living Buddha until his enthronement, and it is only when he has mounted the throne and the title of hubilehan has been officially cancelled that he is qualified to be a living Buddha, and succeed his predecessor's post and rank. For example: "The Lcang-kya Khutukhtuts hubilehan... was granted the title of State Tutor as had his predecessor "16 As to the question of "the official cancellation of the word 'hubilehan' in the case of a Khutukhtu and other living Buddhas," the"Regulations Enforced by the Council for Ethnic Minority Affairs" stipulate: "The Dalai Lama and Panchen are of the orthodox school of Tibetan Buddhism. The Jebtsun Dampa Khutukhtu initiated the pledging of allegiance, and did deeds of merit and accomplishment in the early period after the founding of the Qing Empire. When any of these three people is reincarnated, the chancellor presents a memorial to the emperor, and sends the imperial envoy specially authorized by the emperor to his place to look after his enthronement affairs, and it is on the day that he comes to his throne that the word 'hubilehan' registered in the Council's record is officially cancelled. When any of the eight people among the Lcangkya Khutukhtu, the Dgav-ldan Abbot Khutukhtu, the Min-gyur Khutukhtu, the Kyirong Khutukhtu, the Rnam-kha Khutukhtu, the A-kya Khutukhtu, the Lha-kor Khutukhtu, and the Chahantarhan Khutukhtu, and also the resident Khutukhtus in Beijing, passes away, the word 'hubilehan' on record should be cancelled officially on the day the hubilehan comes to Beijing and has an official audience with the emperor. When any of the Khutukhtus, Nomihans, Panditas, Khenpos, Droljis, etc., in various pastoral areas is reincarnated and the hubilehan has reached the age of eighteen years old, the word 'hubilehan' on record will be officially cancelled after the report, which has been verified by the chancellor and the league (prefecture) head, has been submitted to the Council for Ethnic Minority Affairs.

Cancellation of the word 'hubilehan' without the permission of the Council is not allowed, otherwise, the unauthorized personnel concerned will be severely punished."17 It is therefore obvious that "khutukhtu" cannot be interpreted as "Drul-gu" in Tibetan, or "huashen" (incarnation) in Chinese. Can it, then, be interpreted as "living Buddha?" As already mentioned, the use of the appellation "living Buddha" began to be popularized during the Ming Dynasty, and later referred to reincarnated lamas in general, who "know matters both past and future," but"khutukhtu" specifically refers to those among living Buddhas who: "...are aware of Buddhist karma through their natural gifts and wisdom, and come to the world as hubilehans, respectively reincarnating their predecessors; "and who do good works with compassion in the secular world and try hard to extricate all living creatures from misery by practicing Buddhist dharmas; and who thus were granted the post and rank title of Khutukhtu because of their outstanding contributions to propagating Buddhism. It is not, therefore, appropriate to equate the "khutukhtu" with the "living Buddha" in the full sense.